Que 16 - What is reference ??
Answer : Reference is a name that acts as an alias, or alternative name, for a previously defined variable or an object.
prepending variable with "&" symbol makes it as reference.
For Example:
int a;
int &b = a;
Que 17 - What is passing by reference??
Answer : Method of passing arguments to a function which takes parameter of type reference.
For Example:
void swap( int & x, int & y )
{
int temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}
int a=2, b=3;
swap( a, b );
Basically, inside the function there won't be any copy of the arguments "x" and "y" instead they refer to original variables a and b. so no extra memory needed to pass arguments and it is more efficient.
Que 18 - When do use "const" reference arguments in function??
Answer :
a) Using const protects you against programming errors that inadvertently alter data.
b) Using const allows function to process both const and non-const actual arguments, while a function without const in the prototype can only accept non constant arguments.
c) Using a const reference allows the function to generate and use a temporary variable appropriately.
Que 19 - When are temporary variables created by C++ compiler??
Answer : Provided that function parameter is a "const reference", compiler generates temporary variable in following 2 ways.
a) The actual argument is the correct type, but it isn't Lvalue
For Example :
double Cube(const double & num)
{
num = num * num * num;
return num;
}
double temp = 2.0;
double value = cube(3.0 + temp); // argument is a expression and not a Lvalue;
b) The actual argument is of the wrong type, but of a type that can be converted to the correct type
For Example:
long temp = 3L;
double value = cuberoot ( temp); // long to double conversion
Que 20 - What is virtual function??
Answer : When derived class overrides the base class method by redefining the same function, then if client wants to access redefined the method from derived class through a pointer from base class object, then you must define this function in base class as virtual function.
For Example :
class parent
{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};
class child: public parent
{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}
};
parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;
parent_object_ptr->show() // calls parent->show() i
now we goto virtual world...
class parent
{
virtual void Show()
{
cout << "i'm parent" << endl;
}
};
class child: public parent
{
void Show()
{
cout << "i'm child" << endl;
}
};
parent * parent_object_ptr = new child;
parent_object_ptr->show() // calls child->show()
Que 21 - What is pure virtual function? or what is abstract class??
Answer : When you define only function prototype in a base class without implementation and do the complete implementation in derived class. This base class is called abstract class and client won't able to instantiate an object using this base class.
You can make a pure virtual function or abstract class this way..
For Example :
class Boo
{
void foo() = 0;
}
Boo MyBoo; // compilation error
Que 22 - What is Memory alignment??
Answer : The term alignment primarily means the tendency of an address pointer value to be a multiple of some power of two. So a pointer with two byte alignment has a zero in the least significant bit. And a pointer with four byte alignment has a zero in both the two least significant bits. And so on. More alignment means a longer sequence of zero bits in the lowest bits of a pointer.
Que 23 - What problem does the namespace feature solve??
Answer : Multiple providers of libraries might use common global identifiers causing a name collision when an application tries to link with two or more such libraries. The namespace feature surrounds a library's external declarations with a unique namespace that eliminates the potential for those collisions.
namespace [identifier] { namespace-body }
A namespace declaration identifies and assigns a name to a declarative region.
The identifier in a namespace declaration must be unique in the declarative region in which it is used. The identifier is the name of the namespace and is used to reference its members.
Que 24 - What is the use of 'using' declaration??
Answer : A using declaration makes it possible to use a name from a namespace without the scope operator.
Que 25 - What is an Iterator class??
Answer : A class that is used to traverse through the objects maintained by a container class. There are five categories of iterators: input iterators, output iterators, forward iterators, bidirectional iterators, random access. An iterator is an entity that gives access to the contents of a container object without violating encapsulation constraints. Access to the contents is granted on a one-at-a-time basis in order. The order can be storage order (as in lists and queues) or some arbitrary order (as in array indices) or according to some ordering relation (as in an ordered binary tree). The iterator is a construct, which provides an interface that, when called, yields either the next element in the container, or some value denoting the fact that there are no more elements to examine. Iterators hide the details of access to and update of the elements of a container class. Something like a pointer.
Que 26 - What is a dangling pointer??
Answer : A dangling pointer arises when you use the address of an object after its lifetime is over. This may occur in situations like returning addresses of the automatic variables from a function or using the address of the memory block after it is freed.
Que 27 - What do you mean by Stack unwinding??
Answer : It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects in the stack between the place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.
Que 28 - Name the operators that cannot be overloaded??
Answer : sizeof, ., .*, .->, ::, ?:
Que 29 - What is a container class? What are the types of container classes??
Answer : A container class is a class that is used to hold objects in memory or external storage. A container class acts as a generic holder. A container class has a predefined behavior and a well-known interface. A container class is a supporting class whose purpose is to hide the topology used for maintaining the list of objects in memory. When a container class contains a group of mixed objects, the container is called a heterogeneous container; when the container is holding a group of objects that are all the same, the container is called a homogeneous container.
Que 30 - What is inline function??
Answer : The __inline keyword tells the compiler to substitute the code within the function definition for every instance of a function call. However, substitution occurs only at the compiler's discretion. For example, the compiler does not inline a function if its address is taken or if it is too large to inline.
Que 31 - What is overloading??
Answer : With the C++ language, you can overload functions and operators. Overloading is the practice of supplying more than one definition for a given function name in the same scope.
- Any two functions in a set of overloaded functions must have different argument lists.
- Overloading functions with argument lists of the same types, based on return type alone, is an error.
Que 32 - What is Overriding??
Answer : To override a method, a subclass of the class that originally declared the method must declare a method with the same name, return type (or a subclass of that return type), and same parameter list.
The definition of the method overriding is:
· Must have same method name.
· Must have same data type.
· Must have same argument list.
Overriding a method means that replacing a method functionality in child class. To imply overriding functionality we need parent and child classes. In the child class you define the same method signature as one defined in the parent class.
Que 33 - What is "this" pointer?
Answer : The this pointer is a pointer accessible only within the member functions of a class, struct, or union type. It points to the object for which the member function is called. Static member functions do not have a this pointer.
When a nonstatic member function is called for an object, the address of the object is passed as a hidden argument to the function. For example, the following function call
For Example :
myDate.setMonth( 3 );
can be interpreted this way:
setMonth( &myDate, 3 );
The object's address is available from within the member function as the this pointer. It is legal, though unnecessary, to use the this pointer when referring to members of the class.
Que 34 - What happens when you make call "delete this;" ??
Answer : The code has two built-in pitfalls. First, if it executes in a member function for an extern, static, or automatic object, the program will probably crash as soon as the delete statement executes. There is no portable way for an object to tell that it was instantiated on the heap, so the class cannot assert that its object is properly instantiated. Second, when an object commits suicide this way, the using program might not know about its demise. As far as the instantiating program is concerned, the object remains in scope and continues to exist even though the object did itself in. Subsequent dereferencing of the pointer can and usually does lead to disaster.
You should never do this. Since compiler does not know whether the object was allocated on the stack or on the heap, "delete this" could cause a disaster.
Que 35 - How virtual functions are implemented C++??
Answer : Virtual functions are implemented using a table of function pointers, called the vtable. There is one entry in the table per virtual function in the class. This table is created by the constructor of the class. When a derived class is constructed, its base class is constructed first which creates the vtable. If the derived class overrides any of the base classes virtual functions, those entries in the vtable are overwritten by the derived class constructor. This is why you should never call virtual functions from a constructor: because the vtable entries for the object may not have been set up by the derived class constructor yet, so you might end up calling base class implementations of those virtual functions
Que 36 - What is name mangling in C++??
Answer : The process of encoding the parameter types with the function/method name into a unique name is called name mangling. The inverse process is called demangling.
For example :
Foo::bar(int, long) const is mangled as `bar__C3Fooil'.
For a constructor, the method name is left out. That is Foo::Foo(int, long) const is mangled as `__C3Fooil'.
Que 37 - What is the difference between a pointer and a reference??
Answer : A reference must always refer to some object and, therefore, must always be initialized; pointers do not have such restrictions. A pointer can be reassigned to point to different objects while a reference always refers to an object with which it was initialized.
Que 38 - How are prefix and postfix versions of operator++() differentiated??
Answer : The postfix version of operator++() has a dummy parameter of type int. The prefix version does not have dummy parameter.
Que 39 - What is the difference between const char *myPointer and char *const myPointer??
Answer : Const char *myPointer is a non constant pointer to constant data; while char *const myPointer is a constant pointer to non constant data.
Que 40 - How can I handle a constructor that fails?
Answer : throw an exception. Constructors don't have a return type, so it's not possible to use return codes. The best way to signal constructor failure is therefore to throw an exception.
Que 41 - How can I handle a destructor that fails??
Answer : Write a message to a log-file. But do not throw an exception.
The C++ rule is that you must never throw an exception from a destructor that is being called during the "stack unwinding" process of another exception. For example, if someone says throw Foo(), the stack will be unwound so all the stack frames between the throw Foo() and the } catch (Foo e) { will get popped. This is called stack unwinding.
During stack unwinding, all the local objects in all those stack frames are destructed. If one of those destructors throws an exception (say it throws a Bar object), the C++ runtime system is in a no-win situation: should it ignore the Bar and end up in the } catch (Foo e) { where it was originally headed? Should it ignore the Foo and look for a } catch (Bar e) { handler? There is no good answer -- either choice loses information.
So the C++ language guarantees that it will call terminate() at this point, and terminate() kills the process. Bang you're dead.
Que 42 - What is Virtual Destructor??
Answer : Using virtual destructors, you can destroy objects without knowing their type - the correct destructor for the object is invoked using the virtual function mechanism. Note that destructors can also be declared as pure virtual functions for abstract classes.
if someone will derive from your class, and if someone will say "new Derived", where "Derived" is derived from your class, and if someone will say delete p, where the actual object's type is "Derived" but the pointer p's type is your class.
Que 43 - Can you think of a situation where your program would crash without reaching the breakpoint which you set at the beginning of main()??
Answer : C++ allows for dynamic initialization of global variables before main() is invoked. It is possible that initialization of global will invoke some function. If this function crashes the crash will occur before main() is entered.
Name two cases where you MUST use initialization list as opposed to assignment in constructors.
Both non-static const data members and reference data members cannot be assigned values; instead, you should use initialization list to initialize them.
Que 44 - Can you overload a function based only on whether a parameter is a value or a reference??
Answer : No. Passing by value and by reference looks identical to the caller.
Que 45 - What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class??
Answer : The default member and base class access specifiers are different.
The C++ struct has all the features of the class. The only differences are that a struct defaults to public member access and public base class inheritance, and a class defaults to the private access specifier and private base class inheritance.
Que 46 - What does extern "C" int func(int *, Foo) accomplish??
Answer : It will turn off "name mangling" for func so that one can link to code compiled by a C compiler.
Que 47 - How do you access the static member of a class?
Answer : <ClassName>::<StaticMemberName>
Que 48 - What is multiple inheritance(virtual inheritance)? What are its advantages and disadvantages??
Answer : Multiple Inheritance is the process whereby a child can be derived from more than one parent class. The advantage of multiple inheritance is that it allows a class to inherit the functionality of more than one base class thus allowing for modeling of complex relationships. The disadvantage of multiple inheritance is that it can lead to a lot of confusion(ambiguity) when two base classes implement a method with the same name.
Que 49 - What are the access privileges in C++? What is the default access level??
Answer : The access privileges in C++ are private, public and protected. The default access level assigned to members of a class is private. Private members of a class are accessible only within the class and by friends of the class. Protected members are accessible by the class itself and it's sub-classes. Public members of a class can be accessed by anyone.
Que 50 - Can a copy constructor accept an object of the same class as parameter, instead of reference of the object??
Answer : No. It is specified in the definition of the copy constructor itself. It should generate an error if a programmer specifies a copy constructor with a first argument that is an object and not a reference.
